DOI: https://doi.org/10.14710/sat.v10i2.32187

Water Quality Dynamics and Multivariate Analysis of Shrimp Production in Super-Intensive Litopenaeus vannamei Culture

Technology and Management of Applied Aquaculture, Vocational School, IPB University, Indonesia

Open Access Copyright 2026 Wiyoto Wiyoto

Citation Format:
Abstract

 

Water quality stability is a key determinant of ecological balance and production performance in super-intensive shrimp aquaculture systems. This study evaluated the dynamics of major water quality parameters and identified the environmental drivers influencing shrimp production using multivariate analysis. The study was conducted in three super-intensive ponds of whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) over a 61-day culture period. Water quality parameters including pH, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen (DO) were monitored periodically, while shrimp production indicators such as survival rate (SR), average body weight (ABW), specific growth rate (SGR), and feed input were recorded. The results showed that pH and salinity were significantly influenced by measurement time, whereas temperature and DO remained relatively stable and showed no significant spatial differences among ponds. The observed pH ranged from 7.61 to 8.89 (mean 8.32 ± 0.21), temperature averaged 29.4 ± 1.15 °C, salinity ranged from 15 to 30 g L⁻¹, and DO varied between 4.7 and 8.5 mg L⁻¹, indicating generally suitable conditions for shrimp culture. Principal component analysis identified three components explaining 72.27% of the total variance. The first component represented the main productivity gradient associated with DO, feed input, ABW, salinity, and survival rate. The second component reflected physicochemical environmental variability dominated by temperature and pH, while the third component was primarily associated with shrimp growth dynamics represented by SGR. These results highlight the strong interaction between environmental stability and shrimp production performance, emphasizing the importance of integrated water quality management in super-intensive shrimp culture systems.

Fulltext View|Download Email colleagues

Article Metrics:

Article Info
Section: Articles
Language : EN
  1. Anongponyoskun, M., Choksuchart, A., Salaenoi, J., Aranyakananda, P., 2012. Dissolved Oxygen Budget for Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) Culture in Earthen Ponds. Agriculture and Natural Resources 46, 751–758. https://li01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/anres/article/view/242984
  2. Ariadi, H., Musa, M., Mahmudi, M., 2025. Organic material solubility and dynamic modelling analysis of intensive shrimp farming activities in the coastal area of Pekalongan, Indonesia. Croatian Journal of Fisheries 83, 71–85. https://ribarstvo.agr.hr/en/issues/article/1531
  3. Avnimelech, Y., 1999. Carbon/nitrogen ratio as a control element in aquaculture systems. Aquaculture 176, 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(99)00085-X
  4. Bett, C., Vinatea, L., 2009. Combined effect of body weight, temperature and salinity on shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei oxygen consumption rate. Braz. J. Oceanogr. 57, 305–314. https://www.scielo.br/j/bjoce/a/Yd4TBjcJTYDCs7LmC8mzmVp/?lang=en
  5. Boyd, C.E., D’Abramo, L.R., Glencross, B.D., Huyben, D.C., Juarez, L.M., Lockwood, G.S., McNevin, A.A., Tacon, A.G.J., Teletchea, F., Tomasso Jr, J.R., 2020. Achieving sustainable aquaculture: Historical and current perspectives and future needs and challenges. J. World Aquac. Soc. 51, 578–633. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12714
  6. Boyd, C.E., Davis, R.P., McNevin, A.A., 2022. Perspectives on the mangrove conundrum, land use, and benefits of yield intensification in farmed shrimp production: A review. J. World Aquac. Soc. 53, 8–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12841
  7. Brune, D.E., 2021. Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Water Treatment in Semi-Intensive, Intensive, and Super-Intensive Fish and Shrimp Culture, in: The Shrimp Book II. CABI GB, pp. 159–174. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1079/9781800629363.0007
  8. Cao, T.T., Le, H.A., Eppe, G., 2025. Nutrient dynamics, environmental impacts, and feed efficiency in intensive whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) farming on sandy soils in Ninh Thuan, Vietnam. Aquac. Rep. 44, 103050. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2025.103050
  9. Do, D.D., Le, A.H., Le, D.A.N., Bui, H.M., 2025. Evaluation of water quality and key factors influencing water quality in intensive shrimp farming systems using principal component analysis-fuzzy approach. Desalination Water Treat. 321, 101002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101002
  10. González, R.A., Díaz, F., Licea, A., Re, A.D., Sánchez, L.N., García-Esquivel, Z., 2010. Thermal preference, tolerance and oxygen consumption of adult white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone) exposed to different acclimation temperatures. J. Therm. Biol. 35, 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtherbio.2010.05.004
  11. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., Anderson, R.E., 2019. MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS EIGHTH EDITION
  12. Halim, M.A., Aziz, D., Arshad, A., Wong, N.L.W.S., Syukri, F., Nabi, M.M., Islam, A., Mondal, D.K., 2026. A Systematic Review of Biofloc Technology and Periphyton in Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) Aquaculture. Aquaculture, Fish and Fisheries 6, e70202. https://doi.org/10.1002/aff2.70202
  13. Hargreaves, J.A., 1998. Nitrogen biogeochemistry of aquaculture ponds. Aquaculture 166, 181–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00298-1
  14. Hu, C., Lin, M., Hu, T., Zeng, Y., Zeng, R., Wang, C., 2026. Linking Bacterial r/k Ecological Shifts to Spatiotemporal Nitrogen Removal Dynamics in Recirculating Aquaculture Systems. Microb. Ecol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-026-02742-1
  15. Huang, M., Zhou, Y., Tian, H., Pan, S., Yang, X., Gao, Q., Dong, S., 2024. Rapidly increased greenhouse gas emissions by Pacific white shrimp aquacultural intensification and potential solutions for mitigation in China. Aquaculture 587, 740825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2024.740825
  16. Iber, B.T., Kasan, N.A., 2021. Recent advances in Shrimp aquaculture wastewater management. Heliyon 7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08283
  17. Jolliffe, I.T., Cadima, J., 2016. Principal component analysis: a review and recent developments. Philosophical transactions of the royal society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 374, 20150202. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2015.0202
  18. Keneally, C., Gaget, V., Chilton, D., Dornan, T.N., Hensel, J., Keneally, A.E., Kidd, S.P., Brookes, J.D., 2026. Extreme Salinity Change Governs Microbial Community Assembly and Interactions. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 18, e70301. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-2229.70301
  19. Khanjani, M.H., Zahedi, S., Mohammadi, A., 2022. Integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) as an environmentally friendly system for sustainable aquaculture: functionality, species, and application of biofloc technology (BFT). Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29, 67513–67531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22371-8
  20. Kim, H., Lee, K., 2009. Significant contribution of dissolved organic matter to seawater alkalinity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 36. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040271
  21. Koue, J., 2024. Development of an ecosystem model considering sediment redox processes in enclosed water bodies. Water (Basel). 16, 1879. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16131879
  22. Kumar, S., Verma, A.K., Singh, S.P., Awasthi, A., 2023. Immunostimulants for shrimp aquaculture: paving pathway towards shrimp sustainability. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 30, 25325–25343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-18433-y
  23. Le, D.Q., Binh, H.T., Tuyet, D.T.A., Thanh, N.X., Nhi, P.T.T., Bao, D.N., Van Nam, L., Tuan, L.M.,
  24. Nguyet, N.T., Hao, D.M., 2025. Improving whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) performance and water quality in low-salinity BioRAS: role of hydraulic retention time and dietary minerals. Aquaculture International 33, 550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-025-02242-y
  25. Lemonnier, H., Hochard, S., Nakagawa, K., Courties, C., Rodier, M., 2017. Response of phytoplankton to organic enrichment and shrimp activity in tropical aquaculture ponds: a mesocosm study. Aquatic Microbial Ecology 80, 105–122. https://doi.org/10.3354/ame01841
  26. Li, E., Chen, L., Zeng, C., Chen, X., Yu, N., Lai, Q., Qin, J.G., 2007. Growth, body composition, respiration and ambient ammonia nitrogen tolerance of the juvenile white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, at different salinities. Aquaculture 265, 385–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2007.02.018
  27. Li, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, J., Sun, Y., Kong, J., 2025. Plankton community diversity-driven mutualism in medium-salinity ponds enhances growth of pacific white shrimp Penaeus vannamei. Mar. Environ. Res. 107403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2025.107403
  28. Liu, H., Meng, C., Wang, Y., Lei, Q., Zhou, J., 2026. Aquaculture‐induced pH deterioration in pond ecosystems: A case study in a subtropical headwater watershed, China. J. Environ. Qual. 55, e70178. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeq2.70178
  29. Liu, S., Wu, K., Yao, L., Li, Y., Chen, R., Zhang, L., Wu, Z., Zhou, Q., 2024. Characteristics and correlation analysis of heavy metal distribution in China’s freshwater aquaculture pond sediments. Science of the Total Environment 931, 172909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172909
  30. Liu, Z., Li, J., Luo, L., Yu, Y., Yan, J., Sun, C., Miao, X., Li, W., 2025. Regime Shifts in Microbial and Water Quality Dynamics in Red Tilapia Ponds. Microorganisms 13, 1553. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13071553
  31. Marcantel, M., Bappy, M., Hayes, M., 2025. Investigating Seasonal Water Quality Dynamics in Humid, Subtropical Louisiana Facultative Waste Stabilization Ponds. Water (Basel). 17, 2936. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17202936
  32. Matishov, G., Meskhi, B., Rudoy, D., Olshevskaya, A., Shevchenko, V., Golovko, L., Maltseva, T., Odabashyan, M., Teplyakova, S., 2025. Using BioFloc technology to improve aquaculture efficiency. Fishes 10, 144. https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10040144
  33. Mercante, C.T.J., Carmo, C.F. do, Rodrigues, C.J., Osti, J.A.S., Pinto, C.S.M., Vaz-dos-Santos, A.M., Tucci, A., Genaro, A.C. di, 2011. Limnology of Nile tilapia pond: diurnal assessment with the aim of best pratices for management. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20113177228
  34. Moreno, H.D., Rokitta, S., Tremblay, N., Boersma, M., Groß, E., Klip, H.C.L., Wiltshire, K.H., Meunier, C.L., 2024. Higher temperature, increased CO2, and changing nutrient ratios alter the carbon metabolism and induce oxidative stress in a cosmopolitan diatom. Limnol. Oceanogr. 69, 121–139. https://doi.org/10.1002/lno.12463
  35. Moriarty, D.J.W., 1997. The role of microorganisms in aquaculture ponds. Aquaculture 151, 333–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(96)01487-1
  36. Munjayana, M., Wiyoto, W., Ekasari, J., Utari, H.B., Vinasyiam, A., Mubarak, A.S., 2024. Relationship Between The Dynamics of Plankton Community Abundance, Total Organic Matter, and Salinity in Intensive Shrimp Farming Systems. Journal of Aquaculture & Fish Health 13. https://doi.org/10.20473/jafh.v13i2.52715
  37. Musa, M., Mahmudi, M., Arsad, S., Lusiana, E.D., Sunadji, Wardana, W.A., Ompusunggu, M.F., Damayanti, D.N., 2023. Interrelationship and determining factors of water quality dynamics in whiteleg shrimp ponds in tropical eco-green aquaculture system. Journal of Ecological Engineering 24, 19–27. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/156003
  38. Mustafa, A., Syah, R., Tarunamulia, Paena, M., Samad, W., Ratnawati, E., Athirah, A., Asaf, R., Akmal, Kamariah, 2024. Performance and land characteristics of brackishwater pond to support sustainability of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) culture intensive technology. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 31, 66808–66826. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35609-4
  39. Naylor, R.L., Hardy, R.W., Buschmann, A.H., Bush, S.R., Cao, L., Klinger, D.H., Little, D.C., Lubchenco, J., Shumway, S.E., Troell, M., 2021. A 20-year retrospective review of global aquaculture. Nature 591, 551–563. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03308-6
  40. Piwosz, K., Vrdoljak, A., Frenken, T., González-Olalla, J.M., Šantić, D., McKay, R.M., Spilling, K.,
  41. Guttman, L., Znachor, P., Mujakić, I., 2020. Light and primary production shape bacterial activity and community composition of aerobic anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria in a microcosm experiment. mSphere 5, 10–1128. https://doi.org/10.1128/msphere.00354-20
  42. Ponce-Palafox, J., Martinez-Palacios, C.A., Ross, L.G., 1997. The effects of salinity and temperature on the growth and survival rates of juvenile white shrimp, Penaeus vannamei,
  43. Boone, 1931. Aquaculture 157, 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00148-8
  44. Ramos-Mendieta, S.A., Aguilar-Pita, D.V., Coello-Viejó, J.M., Briones-Peña, V.M., 2025. Integrated Evaluation of Productivity Factors in Intensive White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) Aquaculture in Ecuador. Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. Fish. 29
  45. Rana, G., Ray, A.J., 2025. The effects of filtration and horizontal substrate on Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) production and water quality in RAS. Aquac. Eng. 111, 102576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaeng.2025.102576
  46. Ray, A.J., Seaborn, G., Leffler, J.W., Wilde, S.B., Lawson, A., Browdy, C.L., 2010. Characterization of microbial communities in minimal-exchange, intensive aquaculture systems and the effects of suspended solids management. Aquaculture 310, 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2010.10.019
  47. Raza, B., Zheng, Z., Yang, W., 2024. A review on biofloc system technology, history, types, and future economical perceptions in aquaculture. Animals 14, 1489. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14101489
  48. Reis, J., Peixoto, S., Soares, R., Rhodes, M., Ching, C., Davis, D.A., 2022. Passive acoustic monitoring as a tool to assess feed response and growth of shrimp in ponds and research systems. Aquaculture 546, 737326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.737326
  49. Saputra, S., Antoro, S., Pantjara, B., Saputra, A., Minjoyo, H., Dhoe, S.B., Rivaie, A.R., Putro, D.H., Meiyana, M., Bond, M.M., 2025. Effect of gradual salinity acclimatization on survival and physiological health of Litopenaeus vannamei post larvae in freshwater. Aquaculture, Aquarium, Conservation & Legislation 18, 444–456. https://www.proquest.com/openview/91e9c3edb52398e09e2fe0b5db6bdb31/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2046424
  50. Shen, M., Zhao, Y.-C., Ling, T., Wang, R.-J., Dong, T.-T., Cui, Y.-T., LI, Y.-Q., Wang, S.-S., Fu, R.-J., 2019. Effects of high-salt abrupt on growth and related enzyme activities in Litopenaeus vannamei. Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica 50, 204–209. https://doi.org/10.11693/hyhz20180500138
  51. Steiner, K., Laroche, O., Walker, S.P., Symonds, J.E., 2022. Effects of water temperature on the gut microbiome and physiology of Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) reared in a freshwater recirculating system. Aquaculture 560, 738529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2022.738529
  52. Supono, S., Rivaie, A.R., 2025. A Review Of The Development Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) Farming In Indonesia. Indonesian Aquaculture Journal 20, 87–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.15578/iaj.20.1.2025.87-95
  53. Takarina, N.D., Utomo, S.W., Susanti, L., Rochman, N.T., Cahyadi, D., Junaedi, H., Saputra, H.K.H., Saputra, R.N., 2020. Phytoplankton biodiversity trends in nanobubble aerated shrimp farming at Probolinggo coast, East Java, Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d211256
  54. Tang, L., Zhang, L., Yang, P., Tong, C., Yang, H., Tan, L., Lin, Y., Lai, D.Y.F., Tang, K.W., 2023. Seasonal variations in source-sink balance of CO2 in subtropical earthen aquaculture ponds: Implications for carbon emission management. J. Hydrol. (Amst). 626, 130330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.130330
  55. Tangoi, F.P.A., Arseno, D., Ryanu, H.H., Pratiwi, Z.B., Ikhrimah, A.N., Ruwena, N.B., 2025. Design and Implementation of IoT-Based Water Quality Monitoring System for Shrimp Ponds, in: 2025 International Conference on Information and Communication Technology (ICoICT). IEEE, pp. 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICoICT66265.2025.11193108
  56. Tian, X., Dong, S., 2006. The effects of thermal amplitude on the growth of Chinese shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis (Osbeck, 1765). Aquaculture 251, 516–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2005.05.031
  57. Tian, X., Dong, S., Wang, F., 2004. Effects of different temperatures on the growth and energy budget of Chinese shrimp, Fenneropenaeus chinensis. Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao 15, 678–682. https://europepmc.org/article/med/15334969
  58. Verdegem, M., Buschmann, A.H., Latt, U.W., Dalsgaard, A.J.T., Lovatelli, A., 2023. The contribution of aquaculture systems to global aquaculture production. J. World Aquac. Soc. 54, 206–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/jwas.12963?urlappend=%3Futm_source%3Dresearchgate.net%26utm_medium%3Darticle
  59. Villarreal, H., Juarez, L., 2022. Super‐intensive shrimp culture: Analysis and future challenges. J. World Aquac. Soc. 53, 928–932. https://www.proquest.com/openview/2fe4c8fba5191a03a714580961f34785/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1016362
  60. Vinatea, L., Galvez, A.O., Browdy, C.L., Stokes, A., Venero, J., Haveman, J., Lewis, B.L., Lawson, A., Shuler, A., Leffler, J.W., 2010. Photosynthesis, water respiration and growth performance of Litopenaeus vannamei in a super-intensive raceway culture with zero water exchange: interaction of water quality variables. Aquac. Eng. 42, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaeng.2009.09.001
  61. Vinatea, L., Muedas, W., Arantes, R., 2011. The impact of oxygen consumption by the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei according to body weight, temperature, salinity and stocking density on pond aeration: a simulation. Acta Sci. Biol. Sci. 33, 125–132. https://doi.org/10.4025/actascibiolsci.v33i2.7018
  62. Wada, M., Mori, F., Yokouchi, K., Yagi, M., Takita, T., Ishimatsu, A., Iwataki, M., Takahashi, K., Van Mai, H., Vo, T.T., 2016. Comparison of planktonic microbial abundance and dissolved oxygen consumption between the aquaculture ponds of mudskippers and shrimps in the Mekong Delta, southern Vietnam. Fisheries science 82, 787–797. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12562-016-1000-1
  63. Wafi, A., Ariadi, H., van Minnen, T., 2025. Dynamic Model Analysis of Waste Absorption Carrying Capacity Values in Semi-Intensive Shrimp Ponds. Biosaintifika: Journal of Biology & Biology Education 17, 395–405. https://doi.org/10.15294/biosaintifika.v17i3.28439
  64. Wang, B., Liu, Yang, Wu, X., Liu, Yunfei, Li, Z., Wang, J., Lian, Y., Tang, J., Yun, B., Tian, X., 2025. Characteristics of gut microbiota in Penaeus vannamei shifted with elevated salinity. Front. Microbiol. 16, 1665547. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1665547
  65. Wang, H., Cui, Y., Ma, J., Pei, Z., Bian, G., He, F., Ji, M., Xu, X., 2026. Decomposition of cyanobacteria and submerged macrophytes: impacts on carbon emissions and nutrient cycling in lake ecosystems. Carbon Research 5, 18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44246-025-00253-1
  66. Wiyoto, W., Effendi, I., 2020. Analysis of Water Quality for Marinculture in Moro, Karimun, Riau Islands with Principal Component Analysis. Journal of Aquaculture and Fish Health 9, 143. https://doi.org/10.20473/jafh.v9i2.17192
  67. Wiyoto, W., Hendriana, A., Siskandar, R., Mashita, N., Mahendra, T., Cahyo, A.D., Akbar Arzi, J.R., Aulia, S.S., Ekasari, J., 2022. Analysis of water and sediment quality in Pacific whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) culture on different sediment redox potential values. Jurnal Akuakultur Indonesia 21. https://doi.org/10.19027/jai.21.1.59-67
  68. Xiong, D., Sun, Y., Zhang, H., Lin, Q., Ma, Q., He, C., Zhang, C., Zheng, H., 2026. Environmental-driven restructuring of intestinal microbiota promotes host fitness and enhances food safety potential in shrimp pond-cultured Chlamys nobilis. Mar. Environ. Res. 108025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2026.108025
  69. Yang, P., Yang, H., Lai, D.Y.F., Jin, B., Tong, C., 2019. Production and uptake of dissolved carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in overlying water of aquaculture shrimp ponds in subtropical estuaries, China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 26, 21565–21578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05445-y
  70. Yu, X., Feng, W., Liu, Jing, Gao, J., Wang, T., Han, Y., Cao, Y., Liu, Jianguo, 2025. Composition and migration of microbial community in the ice–water–sediment interface of saline lakes in cold and arid regions. Ecol. Indic. 171, 113232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2025.113232
  71. Yuchao, Z., Renjie, W., Min, S., Yanting, C.U.I., Shusheng, W., Yuquan, L.I., Ruijiang, F.U., Shaolong, Z., 2019. Effects of high-salt stress on daily weight gain, osmoregulation and immune related enzyme activities in Litopenaeus vannamei postlarvae. Journal of fisheries of china 43, 833–840. https://dx.doi.org/10.11964/jfc.20180511278
  72. Yusoff, F.M., Umi, W.A.D., Ramli, N.M., Harun, R., 2024. Water quality management in aquaculture. Cambridge Prisms: Water 2, e8. https://doi.org/10.1017/wat.2024.6
  73. Zeng, S., He, J., Huang, Z., 2024. The intestine microbiota of shrimp and its impact on cultivation. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 108, 362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-024-13213-3
  74. Zhang, D., Xu, W., Wang, F., He, J., Chai, X., 2022. Carbon dioxide fluxes from mariculture ponds with swimming crabs and shrimps in eastern China: The effect of adding razor clams. Aquac. Rep. 22, 100917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqrep.2021.100917
  75. Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Q., Liu, P., Guo, R., Jin, S., Liu, J., Chen, L., Ma, Z., Liu, Y., 2020. Evaluation and analysis of water quality of marine aquaculture area. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17, 1446. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041446

Last update:

No citation recorded.

Last update:

No citation recorded.